Definition and Examples of the to Infinitive in English

Legalizing Physician Assisted Suicide - 1140 Words

In current society, legalizing physician assisted suicide is a prevalent argument. In 1997, the Supreme Court recognized no federal constitutional right to physician assisted suicide (Harned 1) , which defines suicide as one receiving help from a physician by means of a lethal dosage (Pearson 1), leaving it up to state legislatures to legalize such practice if desired. Only Oregon and Washington have since legalized physician assisted suicide. People seeking assisted suicide often experience slanted judgments and are generally not mentally healthy. Legalization of this practice would enable people to fall victim to coercion by friends and family to commit suicide. Also, asking for death is unfair to a doctor’s personal dogma. Some†¦show more content†¦The witness requirement does not protect the patient from the very real possibility of the patient being persuaded into requesting physician assisted suicide in order for an inheritor to receive their inheritance. Physic ian assisted suicide allows outside influences to make patients feel its their duty to choose death. On the other hand, it is offered that people should be given the freedom to choose a peaceful death at their convenience. Burke Balch explains the opposing argument; â€Å"They argue that society should respect and defer to the freedom of choice such people exercise in asking to be killed† (Balch and O’Bannon 1). The ‘right to die’ campaign, where some believe it is a personal right to ask for death, is a prevalent push towards the legalization of physician assisted suicide. However, the legalization of the ‘right to die’ can become a slippery slope to abuse of this right. Randall O’Bannon, Director of Research at National Right to Life, demonstrates this slippery slope; â€Å"the so-called ‘right to die’ is very likely in practice to become a ‘duty to die.’ Many consider the law to be the teacher of what is ri ght and proper, and such a codification would be manipulated by the health care industry† (Balch and O’Bannon). The practice of physician assisted suicide could quickly become abused by people who see the human life of those who areShow MoreRelatedEssay on Legalizing Physician-Assisted Suicide1871 Words   |  8 PagesPhysician-assisted suicide should be a legal option, if requested, for terminally ill patients. For decades the question has been asked and a clear answer has yet to surface. It was formed out of a profound commitment to the idea that personal end-of-life decisions should be made solely between a patient and a physician. Can someones life be put into an answer? Shouldnt someones decision in life be just that; their decision? When someone has suffered from a car accident, or battled long enoughRead MoreThe Issue Of Legalizing Physician Assisted Suicide2123 Words   |  9 Pageslives. Legalizing physician-assisted suicide can give the dying individual co mfort in knowing that they have options. Physicians presently are allowed to relieve the dying of their pain and suffering by administering lethal doses of pain medications. Terminally ill patients should be able to access lethal doses of medicine voluntarily through their physician to allow them the choice of death. Strong morals and ethics surrounding this issue have split society on whether or not physician-assisted suicideRead MoreEssay about Legalizing Physician Assisted Suicide1074 Words   |  5 PagesFor hundreds of years we have developed a system where human beings establish and revise rules and regulations that help protect individual lives in our society. However this protection ends when it is time to die. Legalizing physician assisted suicide is â€Å"It’s my life!† an expression that is commonly used at one point in most everyone’s life. Is it my life? Do I get to make all the choices that involve my life? More importantly, who is in charge of my body? Ultimately human beings believeRead MoreThe Controversial Issue Of Legalizing Physician Assisted Suicide1962 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction The topic of legalizing Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) has long been a controversial issue in Canada and has recently received increased attention. In 1993, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled the provisions of the Criminal Code prohibiting assisted suicide. Two decades later, the Supreme Court of Canada began to deliberate whether to uphold or strike down the law prohibiting doctor-assisted suicide. On October 15th (What is the year), the nine justices of the Supreme Court heard impassionedRead MoreEuthanasia Essay - Legalizing Physician Assisted Suicide2312 Words   |  10 PagesLegalizing Physician-Assisted Suicide in Australia First, it is essential to define euthanasia in order to resolve any misconceptions. Euthanasia is the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma (Oxford dictionaries, 2014). It can be either passive or active however this essay will focus specifically on active euthanasia. Euthanasia is currently illegal in Australia, although it was briefly legal in the northern territory. This essayRead MoreLegalizing Physician Assisted Suicide Across The United States Essay2115 Words   |  9 PagesLegalizing Physician-Assisted Suicide Across the United States Physician Assisted Suicide (PAS) has grown into quite a contentious topic over the years. According to Breitbart and Rosenfeld (1), physician-assisted suicide can be defined as â€Å"a physician providing medications or advice to enable the patient to end his or her own life.† One may find many articles that are written by physicians, pharmacists, patients, and family of patients who receive PAS; from there, it is possible to gain a betterRead MoreLegalizing Physician Assisted Suicide And Active Euthanasia843 Words   |  4 PagesFatal Differences The civil argument in the U.S. over whether or not to authorize physician-assisted suicide and active euthanasia has reached new levels of vehemence. Oregon, California, Vermont, and Washington (and Montana, via court ruling) have become the first states to legalize physician-assisted suicide. There has, too, been campaigning, ballot measures, bills, and litigation in other states in attempts to legalize one or both practices. Supporters increasingly urge either absolute legalizationRead MoreShould Physician Assisted Suicide Be Legal?810 Words   |  4 PagesThe Right to Die Having the right to life, also gives one the right to death. Outrageously, physician assisted suicide is illegal in all but five states in the U.S; including California, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Vermont; this law, violating rules of ethics, also defies morals. Some actions in the past, including women not having voting rights, and experimentation on prisoners and the mentally ill, also infringed upon ethics and morale. Women not being permitted to vote before theRead MoreSince The Fifteen Century, Society Has Viewed Suicide Or1178 Words   |  5 PagesSince the fifteen century, society has viewed suicide or intentional death as immoral. It was not until the twentieth century that these â€Å"immoral† attitudes were challenged. As of 2016, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Colombia have unambiguously legalized direct assisted dying. Other areas, having to undergo a process of either a judicial or legislative decision, include Canada, Japan, and German y. Currently in the United States, following the same process of a judicial or legislative processesRead MoreEssay On Physician Assisted Suicide1549 Words   |  7 PagesWriting Project Worksheet 1. This paper will examine the Washington state policy of physician-assisted suicide. 2. State Info: (characteristics, size, culture, political culture, industries, features, etc. to explain state support of policy) Washington is a state in the northwestern United States with an estimated population of 7,288,000, as of July 1, 2016. Washington’s population is primarily white at 69% (not including Hispanics), with Hispanics comprising 12.4%, Asians 8.6%, and African Americans

A Paper Review on the Economics of the Middle East Free Essays

Workforce is a significant aspect in every country’s economy.   There are some areas that has a large number of employment opportunities yet with just a few people applying for work which could be due to lack of skill or because of culture when it comes to women workers especially the married ones. This usually becomes an issue in places where women are not able to work so that they could tend to their children everyday. We will write a custom essay sample on A Paper Review on the Economics of the Middle East or any similar topic only for you Order Now    In some countries, it still taboo for women to get employed since their role is considered as a housekeeper thus not requiring them to seek employment and it is the husbands’ role to be the breadwinner and be the one to put food on the table. This research paper was conducted to help determine whether child care availability would affect women’s employment decisions in the Arab countries, most specifically in Israel where the free Pre-Kindergarten Law for three to four year old kids was implemented last September 1999. This also tried to find out about the effects of child care costs on fertility. According to Analia Schosser, who wrote the research paper, women’s participation in the labor force would help promote women empowerment and gender equality.   This would also help in the progress of a country’s economy and modernization.   A minimal labor force participation of women is often attributed to cultural factors.   I do agree with the author of this paper that having women in the labor force would allow them to earn a living and be able to help support their families financially at the same time help their country’s economy and   also reduce the gender gaps in the employment area.   Mothers would also realize how imperative it is for their kids to get early childhood education to build a foundation for their children’s education. This paper may be based on a study done in one country only but there are some countries that are somewhat of the same situation as that of Israel and this will serve as a basis of a change in the role of women in their societies as well. This could boost the economy of one place if women consider seeking employment and were at the same time considered for employment by certain companies.   This could also enhance the educational growth of children who are of pre-school age. It was found in this research that the Pre-Kindergarten Law of Israel successfully fulfilled two aspects which were the increase of children’s enrollment in pre-school and the increase of the women’s labor supply. It just goes to show that women gave the priority in child-rearing thus giving them no time to seek for employment or they could not afford to put their children to get a pre-school education but when free education was available, it significantly showed a change in the women’s participation on the labor force thereby helping their country as well.   The research also found that there were no short-term fertility responses among mothers affected by the intervention. It would strengthen the findings of this research and be very essential if a follow up is made after a few more years among the same communities offered by the free pre-school education.   A research of the same kind will also help if conducted in another country that has the same predicament. Researches of this type can help a government’s decision on what aspect and ways they need to implement for the enhancement of their community and their economy. Works Cited Schlosser, Analà ­a. â€Å"Public Preschool and the Labor Supply of Arab Mothers: Evidence from a  Ã‚   Natural Experiment.† 2005.    How to cite A Paper Review on the Economics of the Middle East, Papers

Efficacy and Safety of Canagliflozin

Question: Discuss about the Efficacy and Safety of Canagliflozin. Answer: Introduction: Mrs. Mallacota may be addicted to too much of sugary and fatty foods without performing any strenuous activities like exercises, that may lead to the development of excess fats in her abdominal area thus leading to the kidney diseases along with the development of the puffiness of the eyes. The past history may be of over-consumption of alcohol, taking non-healthy foods, taking excess amount of sugar (Burrow and Ride 2016). A normal kidney in a human contains 1 million nephrons, which contributes the total amount of in the filtrate rate of the glomerulus. Kidney has an innate ability in maintaining the healthy nephrons for manifestation of hyperfiltration and the compensatory hypertrophy. This adaptability of the nephrons focuses for the continuous in clearing the plasma solutes. The hyperfiltration along with the hypertrophy of the nephrons is noted as the major cause of the progressive dysfunction of the renal system. Type 1 diabetes is elaborated by a blend of edge at the resistant to insulin and deficit of it emission by pancreatic beta cells (Chin et al. 2014). Insulin resistance, which has been credited to raise levels of free unsaturated fats and star provocative cytokines in plasma, prompts to lessened glucose transport into muscle cells, lifted hepatic glucose creation, and extended breakdown of fat. The advice could be of reducing the sugar level in the blood, need to check the blood sugar content regularly. Being an aboriginal lady, Mrs. Mallacota is being advice to alter the food habit of low sugar content. Regular exercises along with the proper diet of diabetes type 1 as activities helps in reducing the blood sugar content in the blood along with the excess fats in the abdominal areas can helps in reducing the kidney disorder. The high levels of the blood sugar level forces kidney to function more and becomes harder for for the performing its function in filtering the wastes that also creates damage to the nephrons and it starts leaking small amount of proteins (Yale et al. 2014). Mrs Mallacota needs to manage herself on the field of Diabetes Type 1 by reducing the sugar-content in her diet. She needs to maintain her glycaemia level which will be help het in minimising hyperglycaemia with flexibility. Reference list: Burrow, S. and Ride, K., 2016. Review of diabetes among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.Mt Lawley (AUST): Edith Cowan University Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet. Chin, M.P., Reisman, S.A., Bakris, G.L., O'grady, M., Linde, P.G., McCullough, P.A., Packham, D., Vaziri, N.D., Ward, K.W., Warnock, D.G. and Meyer, C.J., 2014. Mechanisms contributing to adverse cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and stage 4 chronic kidney disease treated with bardoxolone methyl.American journal of nephrology,39(6), pp.499-508. Inzucchi, S.E., Lipska, K.J., Mayo, H., Bailey, C.J. and McGuire, D.K., 2014. Metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney disease: a systematic review.Jama,312(24), pp.2668-2675. Yale, J.F., Bakris, G., Cariou, B., Nieto, J., David?Neto, E., Yue, D., Wajs, E., Figueroa, K., Jiang, J., Law, G. and Usiskin, K., 2014. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin over 52 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease.Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism,16(10), pp.1016-1027.

Body Image free essay sample

Bianca, thirteen years old, worked a lot harder in gym, walked home faster than she usually would, and skipped meals when she noticed she had less space between her thighs. Seven year old Sharon goes to an eating disorder hospital and faints multiple times because she thinks she is fat. Bryan, twenty-one years old, overdosed on steroids and ended up in the hospital because he was not as big and built as the other guys in the gym. People constantly compare themselves and never seem satisfied with the way they look. With the changes in society and things and people being idolized, teens feel pressured to be something they are not and develop negative body image. From a young age, people begin to pay more attention to how they picture themselves and how they think others see them. Some develop positive body image, but others develop negative body image. It is estimated that millions more struggle with depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem tied to dissatisfaction with body image (â€Å"Body Image amp; The Media† 1). We will write a custom essay sample on Body Image or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page According to Fitzhugh, some contributions to negative body image may be being neglected or abused during childhood, being around people who judge others only by the way they look, and being teased about appearance as a child or teenager (6). Another contribution to negative body image is the media. The media plays a hugh role to the way people view themselves. It influences the decisions a person makes in an average day and affects the environment as well. Body image is more than just physical appearance or how attractive you look (Fitzhugh 4). Fitzhugh states that it can be complex and includes physical sensations from the body, your emotions, and your thoughts (4). It is how one sees them self when they look in the mirror, what they believe about their own appearance (including memories, assumptions, and generalizations), and how someone feels about their body, including their height, weight, and shape. It is also how sense and control your body, how you feel in your body, not just about your body. The media, also known as the blame of body image, advertises to people what is hot and what is not. Lynn-nore Chittom and Laura Finley both  agree that advertising campaigns with pencil-thin models are partly to blame for statistics, and contribute to feelings of inadequacy, low self-esteem, and depression. Some methods of advertisement are using digitally altered images of models to grab your attention (Fitzhugh 13), using celebrities to endorse the product, and statistics and images to show that the product works. Men and women who are insecure about their bodies are more likely to buy beauty and body building products, new clothes, and diet aids (Ballaro and Wagner) to make them feel better about themselves. Teenagers learn what society considers an ideal physique primarily from the media. They are bombarded with images in magazines, movies, on television, and in music that display what is fashionable and attractive. Experts conclude that viewing images of extremely thin models or strong and muscular men may negatively influences peoples’ body image. Once seen in the media and knowing what is idolized, societies desires are then reflected into the environment. The environment is the biggest challenge facing the nation. Constantly being surrounded by methods, objects, and people that will make someone feel better about themselves, pressure them and will eventually affect their attitude. Your environment sets examples for you, helps you to decide who to surround yourself with, and helps you to develop your body image. To most teens and adolescents, the environment that matters the most to them is school. School is the place where kids get to see who and what is popular as well as who and what is out and uncool. A big concern in this environment skinny versus fat. According to the NEDA, National Eating Disorder Association, eighty percent of girls and boys are unhappy with their appearance and approximately forty-five percent are dieting on any given day (Chittom and Finley). Studies say that more than ninety percent of high school junior and senior women diet regularly (â€Å"Body Image†). With so much lack of positive body image, how can anyone be satisfied with themselves? When people have a positive body image, they tend to feel good about themselves generally and are in touch with their bodies, and this can lead to them taking care of themselves in a healthy way (Fitzhugh 5). As appose to those with negative body image, they are not as in touch with themselves physically, emotionally, and mentally. Feeling this way may cause people to develop disorders and complications. Some of them being Anorexia Nervosa, Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), Bulimia Nervosa, and Muscle Dysmorphia. Other people even result to plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery. There have also been cases where people become obsessed with doing this. It is unhealthy and another factor to poor body image. The littlest flaws become major issues to these people. The effects of negative body image may seem minor at one point, but they eventually become more drastic and cause a domino effect of more health problems and complications. Body image issues need to be addressed, and friends are often the first ones to be concerned, so they are in the best position to help. If a friend has a body image issue, the NEDA has several recommendations to help, including learning more about eating disorders and understanding the facts about weight, nutrition, and exercise (â€Å"Body Image†). Talking honestly, being caring, offering compliments, and being a good role model can all help. The NEDA stresses, however, that anyone struggling with an eating disorder or depression needs professional help, so it is also important to know when to seek help for yourself or a friend (â€Å"Body Image†). As the media, parents, teachers, and teens all become more aware of the problems related to body image, more can be done to help people achieve healthy levels of body image. Body image plays a major role in many peoples lives. It is only from a new way of looking at a problem that people will begin to feel better about themselves. More people should focus on making more time to accept the natural dimensions of their body instead of drastically trying to change them. They cannot change their bodies for new ones. So the best thing to do is find peace with the one you have. Your body is where you are going to be living for the rest of your life. Do you not agree it is time to make it home?

German Pet Names Used to Address Family and Friends

German Pet Names Used to Address Family and Friends Germans often use animal names such as  Hasi  and  Maus  as terms of endearment for  loved ones, according to popular German magazines. Kosenamen (pet names) in German come in many forms, from the simple and classic Schatz  to cuter ones like Knuddelpuddel. Here are some favorite German pet names, according to surveys carried out by the German magazine Brigitte and the German website spin.de. Classic German Pet Names Name Variations Meaning Schatz Schatzi,Schatzilein,Schtzchen treasure Liebling Liebchen, Liebelein darling, sweetheart Se/r Sling sweetie Engel Engelchen, Engelein angel German Pet Names Based on Types of Animal Maus Mausi, Mausipupsi, Mausezahn, Musezhnchen mouse Hase Hasi,Hasilein, Hschen, Hascha (combination of Hase and Schatz) *bunny Brchen Brli, Schmusebrchen little bear Schnecke Schneckchen, Zuckerschnecke snail Spatz Spatzi, Sptzchen sparrow *In this context, these names mean  bunny, but they usually mean  hare. German Pet Names Based on Nature Rose Rschen, Rosenblte rose Sonnenblume Sonnenblmchen sunflower Stern Sternchen star English-Language Names Baby Honey German Pet Names Emphasizing Cuteness Schnuckel Schnuckelchen, Schnucki, Schnuckiputzi cutey Knuddel- Knuddelmuddel, Knuddelktzchen, Knuddelmaus cuddles Kuschel- Kuschelperle,Kuschelbr cuddly Germans love their pets, so it only makes sense that they would use pet names as terms of endearment for their human children, significant others, or other beloved family members and  close friends. Germans Are Animal Lovers More than 80 percent of Germans describe themselves as animal lovers, even if significantly fewer German households include a pet. The most popular pets are cats, followed by guinea pigs, rabbits, and in fourth place, dogs.  A 2014 Euromonitor International study found that 11.5 million cats were living in 19% of German households in 2013 and 6.9 million dogs were living in 14% of households. Other German pet populations were not mentioned, but we do know that Germans spend about 4 billion euros ($4.7 billion) a year on all their pets. Thats a lot in a population of   86.7 million. The Germans willingness to spend big on pets is a reflection of the pets increasing importance as companions at a time when single-person or small households in Germany are growing at nearly 2 percent a year, resulting in increasingly isolated lifestyles. And Their Pets Are Beloved Companions Pets are considered beloved companions that enhance their owners’ well-being and quality of living, said Euromonitor. Dogs, which enjoy a high status and high profile among pets, are also viewed as supporting their owners’ fitness and health and as helping them to reconnect with nature on their daily walks.   The ultimate German dog is probably the German shepherd. But the very popular breed that has won the Germans heart seems to be the cute Bavarian dachshund, typically named Waldi. These days, Waldi is also a popular name for baby boys, and the dachshund, in the form of a small bobblehead toy in the rear window of a good many German cars, is a symbol of the countrys Sunday drivers. Waldi, the Name and the Olympic Mascot But in the 1970s, dachshunds were synonymous with the rainbow-hued dachshund Waldi who, as the first official Olympics mascot, was created for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, the capital of Bavaria. The dachshund was not chosen so much for this accident of geography but supposedly because it possessed the same qualities as a great athlete: resistance, tenacity, and agility. At the 1972 Summer Games, even the marathon route was designed to resemble Waldi.

Goal Setting Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Goal Setting - Personal Statement Example I have some very lofty goals that I know are challenging but I am on the right path. Currently I am working towards becoming a Clinical Physcologist. I am attending the University of Wisconsin-Madison as a freshman. I am highly ambitious as I will be completing 26 credits for my 1st semester (normally coursloads run from 15-20 credits). I have sustained a high level of achievement throughout all of my academic career, my many awards and honors include Honor roll (200-2006), Who's Who Among American High School Students, High School student achievement award (2004 and 2006), Student of the month (2004), National Honor Society(2004-2006), and Kiwanis Club certificate of Scholastic achievement (2003). I have not only excelled in academics but in sports as well as participating in community service. I was awarded the Bradford athletic award for volleyball in 2003 and have volunteered at the lions club and Shalom Centre, where I have helped serving meals as well as helping those in need. I am an excellent candidate for the scholarship awarded by the Slovak American Charitable Association. I am the third generation of my family to be a member of the "First Catholic Slovak Ladies Association". I am proud of who I am and where my family has come from.

How high street fashion brands are picking up on trends through Dissertation

How high street fashion brands are picking up on trends through advertising and celebrity endorsements - Dissertation Example Fashion has become much more accessible, the process from catwalk to high street taking a maximum of 9 weeks which means that consumers are becoming allot more trend – savvy. With the many styles that are available, one of the core ways in which consumers are making decisions on style is based upon what they see celebrities wearing. Therefore, brand managers have had to adapt. Choosing the right celebrity will greatly affect the success of a fashion product so it is an important decision for a brand, usually based on many qualities, such as appeal, looks, popularity or even just a fantasy figure. In today’s highly competitive fashion marke high street brands such as Topshop and Miss Selfridge are at loggerheads when it comes to products, each having a similar product to that of the rival. It is harder for one brand to gain quintessential advantage; such as advertising, service, promise of trust and even price factors. A key celebrity endorsement will take tip the compet itive edge from one to the other. Advertising seems to be the best platform from which brands compete, which requires hiring the best advertising agencies in order to get the biggest and best celebrities to advertise for brands. The company needs to invest in a good creative agency, a large enough promotional budget and a huge star to endorse the brand to ensure success over the competing brand. Brand communication delivered by celebrities and famous personalities generate a higher appeal, attention and recall within the fashion industry than those executed by non celebrities or models. The attraction to the celebrity creates a quick message that can reach the consumer with an impact that is all too essential in today’s competitive market. Because of the core importance of celebrity endorsement, the different models applied by brands used to achieve the full potential of such endorsements, highlight the need for a convergence between the pragmatic and theoretical approaches o f brand building and effective advertising. The opportunity and importance of a celebrity brand match and the various roles played them as brand associates shows the momentum this strategy has gained over the last few years. Celebrity endorsements offer the opportunity to maintain the contact with potential customers, sometimes without them even being aware of the advertising aim. Advertising concepts such as ‘positioning by association’ ‘diminishing celebrity utility’ and the multiple effecters which show the triangular relationship between the brand, the consumer and the celebrity provide a framework in which to create an understanding of the importance of choosing the right celebrity to endorse a brand in order to add to the mythology of the product. When a brand is created for a company, more than just a method of selling a product is put into place. Brand identity is the emotional context in which a consumer will form a relationship with a product or p roduct name. In fashion, the way in which the product is identified with one celebrity or another can make or break a brand. Juicy Couture did no advertising during the first few years of their emergence onto the fashion scene. However, through the power of celebrity endorsement alone, through getting their track suits on people with highly visibly branding of their own through their celebrity, such as Madonna and Jennifer Lopez, the brand was able to make a powerful mark on the fashion industry (Steele 2010, p. 129). Without large amounts of spending, a fashion entity can get their products onto the right people when they are getting photographed by paparazzi and create a powerful buzz

Global Exploration and Global Empires 1500-1700 Essay

Global Exploration and Global Empires 1500-1700 - Essay Example During this time, the Portuguese and the Spanish begun to explore the European oversees (Annenberg Media, 2007). This exploration aimed at the Atlantic Ocean and Western Mediterranean instead of the East as it was common in the past exploration. The reasons presented in this essay motivated the exploration by the Portuguese and the Spanish during this time (Abernethy, 2007). Economic factors The first motive was that the financial system in Europe- towards the end of the 15th century- was growing and carrying out well. It is recorded that in case the financial system of a nation is flourishing, it aims at importing and exporting its goods. They needed new markets to market their commodities. Italian traders had dominated the market with the East, therefore Europeans, particularly the Portuguese started to abandon the Mediterranean and attempted to enter the Atlantic (McDowell, 1992). There was a shortage of silver in Europe and they had no possibility for a new supply. They discovere d that large quantities of gold were in Africa, though they were not amused with the current system whereby they purchased gold from Northern Africa (Abernethy, 2007). The gold went through numerous distributors before getting to the Arabs (Abernethy, 2007). ... trading positions in Africa and finally sailed from place to place in Africa and started trading positions in Southern Arabia and India (Abernethy, 2007). Geographical factors The first moved during the exploration involved their tactical geographic setting, which offered an effortless entrance to the south towards Africa or the west towards the Americans. Another, possibly important, influence for these explorers leading opinion in their exploration was the eras purchase and use of old Arabic information and knowledge in math’s, geography and astronomy (Abernethy, 2007). This period of exploration introduced the communities of Europe to the presence of new philosophies across the globe (Abernethy, 2007). Before this era, the Europeans had enough details of the individuals and locations beyond the limitations of Europe, mainly Asia and Africa. Before the innovation and invention of the Americas, the Europeans were not aware of other existence. Europeans assumed that the world was small than it was in reality (Abernethy, 2007). This motivated the initial pioneers like Magellan and Columbus to believe that discovering new paths to the East was going to be easier than the way they discovered it (Overy, 2004). Philosophical misconceptions around natural features and the beliefs of local populaces would transform gradually through the initial centuries of these exploration (Abernethy, 2007). By the 16th century, European plans started to increase their representations and accounts to incorporate new physical discoveries (Abernethy, 2007). However, because of the powerful political conflicts taking place during the time, European nations protected their geographic findings and data from one another (Abernethy, 2007). Therefore, we can say that, though the need to

The Concept of New Media

The Concept of New Media THE CONCEPT OF NEW MEDIA New Media as a term cannot be described by a single, uniform definition. This is because the concept of New Media evolves along with the development of technology and as the modes of communication progress and become in many ways, more instant. The concept of New Media takes definite form when the comparison between the old and the new mediums of communication takes place. In the present age, the mediums of television, recorders, radio and paper books have taken a back stage and the electronic mediums of communication have emerged triumphant. Today, the most popular and most instantaneous means of communication is the Internet which is the core element distinguishing new media from other forms. The popular definition of New Media is recognized with the use of a computer for the means of distribution and exhibition, by way of the internet, rather than with production. Thus, texts distributed via a computer are considered as New Media whereas those printed on paper, without the use of the computer and the internet are not. This Lev Monovich has labeled as the ‘culture of computerization.’[1] According to Monovich, the computer encompasses all mediums/methods of communication and affects all types of media, text, still images, moving images, sound and special constructions.[2] However, Monovich himself states that limiting the advent of New Media to the device of a computer is too limiting. Monovich lays down the following principles that determine new Media[3] – Numerical Representation Monovich states that all types and forms of New Media can be described mathematically, that is in terms of the binary code and so are numerical representations. Therefore, by applying appropriate algorithms, New Media can be manipulated. A cinematograph film for example is a sequence of images/frames, each of which has its own numerical representation.[4] Modularity This is also known as the ‘fractal structure of New Media’. Media elements consist of pixels, bites, characters, scripts, voxels etc, each of which combine to create the larger image, that is, what we see. However, each one retains its independent identity separate from the whole. Going back to the example of the cinematograph film, each frame would be independently created and would thereafter be combined together to create the whole cinematograph work. However, a single frame can thereafter be removed, altered or deleted without having an effect on the whole ‘work’. Automation The above two principles, that is Numerical representation and Modularity allow the work to be automated in many operations. For example, in cinematograph films software is programmed to automatically produce artificial life such as crowds of people as required in the film. Another more common example is when a computer automatically generates web pages when the user reaches the site. Variability An object of New Media is parallel to the idea of liquid. New media is not fixed in one definite format but can exist in a myriad of versions. New Media frequently changes as it is stored digitally with a numerical code. Thus, variability is a consequence of principle 1 – numerical representation and principle 2 – modularity. In order to get clarity, one can compare old media with new media. Old Media is created by a human creator who manually assembles the test, the images, and the video and audio elements in one particular format which then becomes fixed for perpetuity. Copies of the work can be made, but only identical copies can be made. In contrast, New Media, which constitutes numerous codes, changes each time it is generated. This is because, after it is created by the human creator, New Media then begins to be generated automatically which is what results in different versions. As New Media is stored digitally, in contrast to a fixed medium, each element retains its separate identity which can then be assembled into numerous sequences under the program’s control. Variability of New Media is created due to the following factors [5]– Media elements are stored on a media database Each time Media is created, different elements are used along with different numerical coding New Media can be displayed using a number of different interfaces The information about the user can be used by a computer program to automatically generate and customize the media composition New Media is through branching/menu based interactivity thus allowing the user to choose. This is when a user enters a programme; the user is given a number of options to choose from. The branch next advanced to in the program would depend upon the choice made by the user which for each user would not necessarily be the same. New Media contains objects that are periodically updated. Transcoding The fifth principle is the most significant, the cultural transcoding of media. This means that all data is turned into computerized data. While on the one hand computerized media still displays structural organization which is comprehensive to the users such as images, texts etc. on the other hand media follows the conventional structure of a computer’s organization of data. Therefore, New Media can be seen as two distinct layers, the ‘culture layer’ and the ‘computer layer’. The layer that can be viewed as a representation is the culture layer and the operating functions are the computer layer. Lev Manovich, in his introduction toThe New Media Reader, defined New Media by using eight propositions: Today, the increasingly rapid change in technological development is leading to rapidly changing forms of new media thus leading to new and unexpected methods of distributing and exhibiting copyrighted work. Methods of distribution or exhibition are constantly evolving and are modernizing hence giving old content new form and value. For example, the exhibition of performing arts has evolved from theater to pictures, television, videocassettes, LDs, DVDS, streamed videos and then to cell phone formats and tablet formats. A similar scenario has been witnessed in the music industry where the method of storing the data recorded has changed. Copyright Law, including the Copyright Act, 1957 grants authors an exclusive right over their creations.[6] Copyright in a work lasts for long durations. Section 22 of the Act states that â€Å"Copyright shall subsist in any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work published within the lifetime of the author until sixty years from the beginning of the calendar year next following the year in which the author dies.† During this time, the value of the work and the circumstances surrounding its distribution would be liable to change considerably. To get a full understanding of the concept imagine that a newspaper publisher wants to release a compilation of articles on a CD-ROM and simultaneously wants to create an online database. There would be a possibility that a number of the authors would not be alive to give their consent to such distribution of their work. Finding the right holders to all articles to get them to agree to re-release the works would be prohibitively diff icult. Copyright laws across the globe have not enunciated on the copyright protection of ever-changing New Media. Thus, New Media will prove to be a highly contentious issue due to the gaping loophole in the law. As India has not expressly dealt with the issue of New Media as a challenge to copyright law this chapter will look at legislative reasoning in other countries before drawing a conclusion as to what India’s legislative development shall be in this respect. The legal landscape with respect to new use rights is bifurcated into two. While USA and the UK recognize new use rights and generally allow the free transfer of rights to unknown uses of copyrighted works, copyright grants are restricted in Germany, Spain, Belgium. CHAPTER___ COPYRIGHT PROTECTION OF TWEETS AND FACEBOOK POSTS Twitter along with Facebook epitomizes the term ‘social networking sites’ which allows a user to create a profile and regularly interact with other users. While Facebook allows posts and images to be uploaded on a user’s profile, Twitter is a real time application that allows public contact amongst the users. Thus, in the Internet age, Twitter and Facebook are the most commonly used social networking sites. Copyright issues with respect to one site will apply equally to the other site. Therefore, for discussion sake, the example of Twitter is chosen. ‘Tweets’, the posts by users on the site, are relatively simple as a mechanism. They are short in length as they cannot exceed 140 characters and on a general basis answer only one question.[7] Users on Twitter share stories, facts, information, breaking news, updates on world events, entertainment, sports etc. Twitter users can follow other users or vice versa and updated tweets would appear as and when they are posted.[8] Twitter, via its terms of service, declares that the user retains his/her rights to any content posted[9], therefore Twitter states that the user is entitled to the Intellectual Property Rights that get vested with the user as a result of any post. Alternatively, by signing up as a user on the Twitter website and making the content available to the public by posting tweets, the user grants a license to Twitter. The license includes Twitter’s right to make the content available to other organizations, companies etc.[10] Whether tweets on Twitter are copyrightable has, till date, not been a contentious issue in India. However, in the United States the copyrightability of tweets has been under debate. Therefore, to be able to culminate in a satisfactory answer, we first need to see whether a Tweet/post satisfies the requirements of the Federal Copyright Act. I will simultaneously transpose a similar argument in the Indian context. As per Section 102(a) of the Act, original works of authorship that are fixed in a tangible medium of expression, whether now known or later developed, are protected. Therefore, the pre-requisites for copyright protection under the Federal Act and the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 are – Originality The term ‘original’ has not been defined either under the Federal Act or under the Act of 1957. However, Section 13(1)(a) of the 1957 Act states that copyright shall subsist in ‘original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works;’ which is indicative that copyright shall only extend to works that are the fruits of a person’s labour and skill. In the United States, it was observed in Alfred Bell Co. v. Catalda Fine Arts[11] that the term â€Å"’Original in reference to a copyrighted work means that the particular work ‘owes its origin’ to the author†. Further, in the landmark judgment of Feist Publications Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co.[12] it was observed that originality work that is directly attributable to the skill and labour of the author and that the work in question is independently created and is not a mere copy.[13] In order to be protected under the Copyright Act, 1957, a work must satisfy the criteria of ‘work’ as defined in Section 2(y) of the Act. In University of London Press v. University Tutorial Press[14] J. Peterson held that the word original does not imply that the work must be the expression of original or inventive thought. Originality as interpreted with respect to copyright protection relates to the expression of thought.[15] For a work to be considered original under the Copyright Act, it is sufficient if the contribution is minimal or poor. Work of Authorship The second pre-requisite for copyright protection to apply to any work is that the work must be a ‘work of authorship’. (continue) Fixation in a tangible medium The third element that is required for copyright protection is that a work is deemed created when it is first fixed, that is given a tangible form. This is parallel to the concept that an idea is not copyrightable but the expression of that idea is entitled to copyright protection.[16] Thus, if the idea is not made into a tangible medium, i.e. expressed, it cannot be protected by way of copyright. For example, in the field of literary work, the idea of the novel would not be copyrightable, but when the idea is expressed on paper in the particular manner of the author; fixation of the work would take place. For copyright protection, the medium, form and method of fixation of the work is not substantially consequential. Tweets create a challenge to the Copyright law and its application. However, the fact that Twitter’s Terms of Service include a Copyright Policy is indicative of the fact that the content on Twitter, including tweets, is copyrightable.[17] However, for a particular tweet to be entitled to copyright protection a tweet needs to satisfy the 3 basic requirements given above, a tweet must be an original work, it must be the work of the author and it must be in a fixed, tangible form. Whether a Tweet is entitled to Copyright Protection? To establish whether a tweet is entitled to Copyright Protection the following points are established – A tweet is an original work as the work is independently created. The users of Twitter post a tweet that is the result of their skill and labour. The Tweet meets the originality threshold stated in Alfred Bell Co.[18]however there is no specific reference to determine whether all Tweets are original. However, is it safe to say that some Tweets are original. As a corollary, it is seen that a tweet is a creative work. In Fiest it was held that the work must contain a modicum of creativity, â€Å"No matter how crude, humble or obvious ‘it might be.†[19]However, Phrases and words that have common, widespread usage cannot be copyrighted. A tweet is a literary work as stated under the Acts. As the term literary in the Federal Act connotes neither literary merit nor qualitative value, the term literary can have an expansive interpretation. Applying this standard, all tweets qualify as literary work. Further, to constitute a work of authorship, the work should be based on intellectual labour for which the content of the tweet must be examined. Generic, common phrases and questions cannot be works of authorship as they require no intellect in their expression. However, a poem, an expression, a joke is tweeted would be works of authorship because the work would be the result of intellectual labour as well as a literary work. A tweet is fixed in a tangible medium i.e., Twitter. Tweets cannot be viewed without the aid of a computer or any other device that can be connected to the internet.[20] Nevertheless, Twitter users face many challenges in meeting the three pre-requisites for copyright protection. This is due to the following reasons[21] – Size Tweets are very short in length, with a limit of 140 characters. Therefore, the word limit makes it impossible for the work to reach the level of creativity which is required for copyright protection. Content – It is well established that facts are not copyrightable. Tweets are mainly regarding notifications, events, gossip, and comments on political situations etc. Copyright law does not extend protection to facts and so tweets, despite their varying expressions, cannot be copyrighted. Scenes a faire – Tweets describe events, affairs, circumstances, scenes which cannot be expressed in more than a limited number of ways. For example, a tweet regarding the sunset will describe the sun as brilliant, or sunny, or bright. When an idea can be expressed in only a limited number of ways, such expression cannot be copyrighted as providing copyright protection to such an expression would be providing copyright protection to the idea itself.[22] Copyright in Quotes and Short Phrases Protection by way of Intellectual property rights over the most minimal of creative work has been regularly debated. Copyright protection of brand names, slogans, advertising mantras etc. have become a contentious issue. Courts are forever embroiled in the task of breaking down the exact meaning of the definitions provided in the statute. To get a better understanding of the boundaries of protection by the Act of 1957 some of the definitions provided are required to be repeated. Section 13 of the 1957 Act lays down that copyright protection is accorded on literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, cinematograph films and sound recordings. Rights as provided in the statute can be exercised only by the owner of the copyright.[23] Quotes and short phrases are of two types. One type is cutting a small part from a longer sentence, example a book whereas the other type is when the quote stands on its own in entirety. Tweets would be form of the second type of quote/short phrases. Copyright protection to short phrases and quotes has been refused in a number of cases by the Indian courts. To claim a copyright infringement, the de minimis standard must be satisfied. Courts have refused to grant protection to slogans in advertisements, newspaper headlines for there is no copyright in a mere collection of words that is not a compilation. In this matter the law of trademark infringement and passing off has proved to be more useful. The underlying reason is that although such short phrases may be considered ‘works’ but they are unable to satisfy the requirement of originality. Leading case laws by the English and Indian courts have expounded upon this matter. [1] Lex Monovich, â€Å"Language of New Media† MIT Press, 2001. Pg.43 [2] Id. [3] Id. Pg. 49 [4] Id. Pg. 50 [5] Id. Pg. 57 [6] Section 14 of the Copyright Act, 1957: â€Å". . â€Å"copyright† means the exclusive right subject to the provisions of this Act. .† [7] Rebecca Haas, Twitter: New Challenges to Copyright Law in the Internet Age, 10 J. Marshall Rev. Intell. Prop. L.231 (2010) , pg. 236 [8] Id [9] You retain your rights to any Content you submit, post or display on or through the Services. By submitting, posting or displaying Content on or through the Services, you grant us a worldwide, non-exclusive, royalty-free license (with the right to sublicense) to use, copy, reproduce, process, adapt, modify, publish, transmit, display and distribute such Content in any and all media or distribution methods (now known or later developed) https://twitter.com/tos (Twitter Terms of Service) – Last Accessed – 8/04/2014 [10] Supra n. 3, pg. 237 (Rebecca Haas) [11] 191 F.2d 99, 103 (2nd Cir. 1951) [12] 499 U.S 340, 351-52 (1991) [13] Rebecca Haas, pg. 238 [14] 1916] 2 Ch 601. The case involved the copying of mathematic questions, which were held to be original for the purposes of copyright law [15] Tissya Mandal. â€Å"Copyright in quotes† available at – http://ssrn.com.abstract=1818985 [16] Id. [17] Supra n. 5 Twitter Copyright Policy states: Twitter respects the intellectual property rights of others and expects users of the Services to do the same. We will respond to notices of alleged copyright infringement that comply with applicable law and are properly provided to us. If you believe that your Content has been copied in a way that constitutes copyright infringement, please provide us with the following information: (i) a physical or electronic signature of the copyright owner or a person authorized to act on their behalf; (ii) identification of the copyrighted work claimed to have been infringed; (iii) identification of the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity and that is to be removed or access to which is to be disabled, and information reasonably sufficient to permit us to locate the material; (iv) your contact information, including your address, telephone number, and an email address; (v) a statement by you that you have a good faith belief that use of the materia l in the manner complained of is not authorized by the copyright owner, its agent, or the law; and (vi) a statement that the information in the notification is accurate, and, under penalty of perjury, that you are authorized to act on behalf of the copyright owner. – Last Accessed – 8/04/2014 [18] Supra n. (Alfred Bell) [19] Supra n.  ­__ at 345 [20] Rebecca Haas, Pg. 245 [21] Consuelo Reinberg. â€Å"Are Tweets Copyright- Protected?† WIPO Magazine, July 2009 [22] The concept of idea-expression being expressed in a limited number of ways is called the â€Å"Doctrine of Merger†, which will be discussed subsequently. [23] Section 14 of the Act lays down the rights that are exclusively granted to the owner of the copyright. Section 57 of the Act further defines two forms of ‘moral rights’ that are conferred on the author, right of paternity and integrity. The right of paternity is a right provided to the author which is the right to prevent others from claiming authorship of his work. Right of integrity enables the author to prevent mutilation or distortion of his work or any other act which would be prejudicial to his reputation and honor.

Objectives of Economic Growth and Development Essay -- Essays Papers

Objectives of Economic Growth and Development Economic growth is defined by, among other things, material capital formation, human capital formation and the creation of innovation. Put another way, economic growth is determined by the amounts and types of capital and labor that are invested, and how they are utilized for production. The objective of economic growth through economic policy is not necessarily GDP or GNP maximization but maybe enhancing and improving quality of life or other values that cannot be measured by GDP. If we limit our outlook to economic growth itself, the questions of what to assume as the objective of economic growth and how to measure it is decided by people. It is possible and desirable, to have a scheme wherein issues that are not easy to quantify, such as quality of life, are taken into account when policy choices are prepared and decisions carried out. The idea here is only that no matter what kind of economic society one visualizes, the issues of investment of capital and available resources are of extreme importance. This is to say while the objective of economic policy is improving the welfare of citizens, it will primarily be dependent on resource investment and productivity, no matter how that improvement may be defined. Whether looking at GDP or quality of life, different levels of attainment have been achieved from nation to nation. The enormous cross-country differences in economic development and growth have led to research interest in the determinants of economic growth. Three main competing explanations exist with regards to stunted economic development and growth. The first explanation centers on the role of increased international trade. The basic idea here is that an ... ..., from the objectives of the people that live within, to its geographic location and resource holds, to the level of economic prosperity and involvement it attains, and must be treated as such. References Acemoglu, Daron (2003): Root Causes, Finance and Development quarterly magazine. Vol. 40 #2. June, 2003.(Washington:IMF) Barro, R.J. (1991): Economic Growth in a cross section of Countries, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106 (May). Frankel, Jeffrey A., and David Romer (1999): Does Trade Cause Growth? American Economic Review, vol. 89. Rodrik, Dani and Subramanian, Arvind (2003): The Primacy of Institutions, Finance and Development quarterly Magazine. Vol 40 #2. June, 2003.(Washington:IMF) Sachs, Jeffrey (2003): Institutions Matter, but Not for Everything, Finance and Development quarterly Magazine. Vol 40 #2. June, 2003. (Washington:IMF)

Political Theory Essay

Introduction While approaching the writings of major philosophical figures in the 16th century and the 17th century there emerges several weaknesses in addition to their political thought in their time. In his work, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Quentin Skinner’s emphasises the ‘textualist’ approach by the ones writing within the genre of political theory and further claim that they â€Å"rarely supplies us with genuine histories†. 1 Skinner seems to engage in a ‘historical’ approach to the writings of political thought, which goes hand in hand with the social and political context of the period the major works were composed. Indeed, this proves fruitful for this analysis, and therefore it will be provided a narrow historical review of the period the works were written, in order to present the remarkable similarity between the causes of political thought. Accordingly, there will be implemented a comparison of the philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin, focusing primarily of their concept of the state and the church and the differences between the two models of political thought. In terms of the state, the focus will lie on the citizens and the sovereign rule; in terms of the church, an analysis of its place within the governmental framework will be provided. The primary sources used as a basis for this analysis is the work of Jean Bodin Six Books of the Commonwealth, translated by M. J. Tooley, and Hobbes On the Citizen, edited by Richard Tuck & Michael Silverthorne. In grasping the political works of Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin it is important to remember that their perception of the state was born in an age of crisis. As central themes of his political thought Hobbes was concerned with peace, security and order; however, religion was omnipresent throughout his experience of life and through his works. For Hobbes the only valid proposition of a natural religion was that something must have created the world, but who or what is not for certain. 2 Most important he also believed that religious division was a significant factor for the origins of war. The basics of Hobbes theory was to add the will to avoid religious conflict and restore peace into one or a group of biological people that was to further secure the will of the state. Like Hobbes, Bodin was concerned with preserving order and his relation to religion is said to be complex. Although he was less familiar with the New political from his religious thought. ’3 However, entering deeper into the religious life of Bodin it is palpable that he never adhered to one true theological standpoint throughout his lifetime. 4 Another factor of correlation between the two political thinkers is their personal historical background containing the experience of war, which largely contributed as one of their causes for writing. Most known for his work and best-seller, Leviathan, the Englishman Thomas Hobbes was to be acknowledged as an important contribution to the philosophical field in his lifetime and all the way to the 21th century. Hobbes was born in 1588 in Westport raised by his non-wealthy family, fortunately being paid for by his uncle to get an education when the time was right. 5 Entering the field of the enlightened, Hobbes at an age of 54 later produced his first claim to fame, De Cive (On the Citizen), published in Latin edition in 1642 which is characterised as one of the forerunners to his major work Leviathan. Here, it is important reconsider what is omnipresent throughout both, De Cive and Leviathan, namely fear: in order to understand his political thought. Some tend to regard Hobbes as a synonym to the concept of fear even though this impossibly cannot be so, however it does not reject King’s argument that Hobbes had experienced disorder in society and therefore feared political chaos. 6 England during the 17th century can in be referred to as a period of transformation both in terms of politics and religion. Historically, throughout Hobbes lifetime (1588 – 1679) the political circumstances in the years of 1642 to 1651 prove to stand out painted in the colour of red. The Reformation left deep traces and was not yet to relinquish as its religious struggles was to turn into a fight of power between the King and the Parliament. 7 The English Civil war provided an environment such as extreme disorder and civil insecurity to be explanatory for the horrors it brought the 6? 7’8†²? 9 # â€Å" $? *: )? â€Å" : ;0?. / 1– 1? ’? :?! ( 4 ?!! /? $ < @ ( 5 JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES,? ‘? = ‘? 1? *9/? ‘ ;6-. A=? B ;- HTTP://WWW. JSTOR. ORG/STABLE/3745504 0 , $ *3 @ 3 9 )? +? 2 ;A1. / =0 A? 8? ‘? 9’? C D7 @ % $E $ ‘ ‘ * ‘ F;0.? //’? F B -1 G/? HH222’I ‘ H! H 6;0-6 3 13 Political Theory country8. In a chaotic England, Hobbes had to face his own opponents after he had written the first outline of the philosophy of the state, Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, which created an unstable environment for him to live. Indeed, adversity was for Hobbes the reason he decided to flee and choose the life in exile crossing the national boarders to France. 9 When the Civil War was over, he returned home to the end of his life, still absorbed in scientific activity. A lesser-known philosopher yet one of the most ambitious and prolific French scholars, Jean Bodin, was born in 1529 or 30 in the French area of Angers. Although living in separate time periods Bodin is born three years after Machiavelli’s death (1469 – 1527) and died when Thomas Hobbes was eight years of age and therefore spans precisely between these two. 10 Throughout his lifetime he was, in resemblance to Hobbes, to experience war that provoked his political thinking which prospered into what was to be known as The Six Books of the Commonwealth (1955). Bodin was an admirable scholar and by the time he had to face his mortal destiny he made contributions to the area of science stretching from historiography to political economy. 11 Noticeable that he was among the more enlightened characters of his time, Bodin went to Paris in his youth for educational matters studying humanities. Further curious about the juridical nature of society he went to study civil law until the 1560s, and after he turned to a political career becoming a king’s advocate in Paris. A decade later he became a counsellor of the Duke of Alencon which secured him a seat at the table of the royal family, which ceased before 1576. He then further joined the Catholic League (sometimes referred to as the Holy League) which played a major part in the French Wars of Religion (1562–98) eradicating the Protestants also called the Huguenots. 12 Primarily, The Wars involved the Catholic crown attempting to impose religious uniformity upon the large F? > What further divided the citizens in contemporary France was their support for various versions of the Christian faith that created a warfare of self-righteousness, which for Bodin, was an erroneous societal condition. What Bodin’s beliefs could be said to represent at the time is further dubiously, but as Summerfield argues, Bodin might have believed that â€Å"Catholicism was the best ‘civil religion’ for his countrymen†. 13 Further, Bodin supported religious diversity in that Catholics should have the opportunity to embrace their faith just the Huguenots without having intolerance towards each other. By offering a narrow description of the historical period relevant to both Hobbes and Bodin and further suggest a biographical outlook of both philosophers, the main focus have been on the facts of importance for further analysis. Main section As discussed to some extent in Bodin’s case, it is applicable to both philosophers that they were living in a time where religion was inseparable from their political thinking. Today it may seem strange that politics of much importance was molded around religious beliefs, because we live in a time where each person is free to decide what to believe and which religion to adhere to. During the period of discussion, the church and the state had too many common interests that a division between them seemed unthinkable. For Bodin, his thought behind his Republic was the hope to restore the splendour and serve the interest of the French Monarchy, which functioned as a cornerstone in his description of the commonwealth. 14 In accordance to Hobbes, much like in the case of Bodin, his impetus of his work De Cive lie primarily in providing a solution to the religious moral conflict prevailing in 16th, 17th century England. Bodin and the family In this section, the discussion will point to Jean Bodin’s concept of the state at a micro level. – In Book I, chapter I of the Republic the first sentence acknowledge what Bodin understands to be the nature of the Commonwealth, namely its internal structure being organised around the ?6?

Foreign Policy Definition and Examples

Foreign Policy Definition and Examples A state’s foreign policy consists of the strategies it uses to protect its international and domestic interests and determines the way it interacts with other state and non-state actors. The primary purpose of foreign policy is to defend a nation’s national interests, which can be in nonviolent or violent ways. Key Takeaways: Foreign Policy Foreign policy encompasses the tactics and process by which a nation interacts with other nations in order to further its own interestsForeign policy may make use of diplomacy or other more direct means such as aggression rooted in military powerInternational bodies such as the United Nations and its predecessor, the League of Nations, help smooth relations between countries via diplomatic meansMajor foreign policy theories are Realism, Liberalism, Economic Structuralism, Psychological Theory, and Constructivism Examples of Foreign Policy In 2013 China developed a foreign policy known as the Belt and Road Initiative, the nation’s strategy to develop stronger economic ties in Africa, Europe, and North America. In the United States, many presidents are known for their landmark foreign policy decisions such as the Monroe Doctrine which opposed the imperialist takeover of an independent state. A foreign policy can also be the decision to not participate in international organizations and conversations, such as the more isolationist policies of North Korea. Diplomacy and Foreign Policy When foreign policy relies on diplomacy, heads of state negotiate and collaborate with other world leaders to prevent conflict. Usually, diplomats are sent to represent a nation’s foreign policy interests at international events. While an emphasis on diplomacy is a cornerstone of many states foreign policy, there are others that rely on military pressure or other less diplomatic means. Diplomacy has played a crucial role in the de-escalation of international crises, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 is a prime example of this. During the Cold War, intelligence informed President John F. Kennedy that the Soviet Union was sending weapons to Cuba, possibly preparing for a strike against the United States. President Kennedy was forced to choose between a foreign policy solution that was purely diplomatic, speaking to the Soviet Union President Nikita Khrushchev or one that was more militaristic. The former president decided to enact a blockade around Cuba and threaten further military action if Soviet ships carrying missiles attempted to break through. In order to prevent further escalation, Khrushchev agreed to remove all missiles from Cuba, and in return, Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba and to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey (which was within striking distance of the Soviet Union). This moment in time is significant because the two governments negotiated a solution that ended the current conflict, the blockade, as well as de-escalated the larger tension, the missiles near each other’s borders. The History of Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Organizations Foreign policy has existed as long as people have organized themselves into varying factions. However, the study of foreign policy and the creation of international organizations to promote diplomacy is fairly recent. One of the first established international bodies for discussing foreign policy was the Concert of Europe in 1814 after the Napoleonic wars. This gave the major European powers (Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia) a forum to solve issues diplomatically instead of resorting to military threats or wars. In the 20th Century, World War I and II once again exposed the need for an international forum to de-escalate conflict and keep the peace. The League of Nations (which was formed by former U.S. President Woodrow Wilson but ultimately did not include the U.S.) was created in 1920 with the primary purpose of maintaining world peace. After the League of Nations dissolved, it was replaced by the United Nations in 1954 after World War II, an organization to promote international cooperation and now includes 193 countries as members. It is important to note that many of these organizations are concentrated around Europe and the Western Hemisphere as a whole. Because of European countries’ history of imperialism and colonization, they often wielded the greatest international political and economic powers and subsequently created these global systems. However, there are continental diplomatic bodies such as the African Union, Asia Cooperation Dialogue, and Union of South American Countries which facilitate multilateral cooperation in their respective regions as well. Foreign Policy Theories: Why States Act as They Do The study of foreign policy reveals several theories as to why states act the way they do. The prevailing theories are Realism, Liberalism, Economic Structuralism, Psychological Theory, and Constructivism. Realism Realism states that interests are always determined in terms of power and states will always act according to their best interest. Classical Realism follows 16th-century political theorist Niccolà ² Machiavelli’s famous quote from his foreign policy book The Prince: â€Å"It is much safer to be feared than loved.† It follows that the world is full of chaos because humans are egoistic and will do anything to have power. The structural reading of realism, however, focuses more on the state than the individual: All governments will react to pressures in the same way because they are more concerned about national security than power. Liberalism The theory of liberalism emphasizes liberty and equality in all aspects and believes that the rights of the individual are superior to the needs of the state. It also follows that the chaos of the world can be pacified with international cooperation and global citizenship. Economically, liberalism values free trade above all and believes the state should rarely intervene in economic issues, as this is where problems arise. The market has a long-term trajectory towards stability, and nothing should interfere with that. Economic Structuralism Economic structuralism, or Marxism, was pioneered by Karl Marx, who believed that capitalism was immoral because it is the immoral exploitation of the many by the few. However, theorist Vladimir Lenin brought the analysis to an international level by explaining that imperialist capitalist nations succeed by dumping their excess products in economically weaker nations, which drives down the prices and further weakens the economy in those areas. Essentially, issues arise in international relations because of this concentration of capital, and change can only occur through the action of the proletariat. Psychological Theories Psychological theories explain international politics on a more individual level and seek to understand how an individual’s psychology can affect their foreign policy decisions. This follows that diplomacy is deeply affected by the individual ability to judge, which is often colored by how solutions are presented, the time available for the decision, and level of risk. This explains why political decision making is often inconsistent or may not follow a specific ideology. Constructivism Constructivism believes that ideas influence identities and drive interests. The current structures only exist because years of social practice have made it so. If a situation needs to be resolved or a system must be changed, social and ideological movements have the power to bring about reforms. A core example of constructivism is human rights, which are observed by some nations, but not others. Over the past few centuries, as social ideas and norms around human rights, gender, age, and racial equality have evolved, laws have changed to reflect these new societal norms. Sources Elrod, Richard B. â€Å"The Concert of Europe: A Fresh Look at an International System.†Ã‚  World Politics, vol. 28, no. 2, 1976, pp. 159–174.  JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2009888.â€Å"The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962.†Ã‚  U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis.Viotti, Paul R., and Mark V. Kauppi.  International Relations Theory. 5th ed., Pearson, 2011.

Free Essays on What Is Humes Problem Of Induction

What is Hume’s problem of induction? How successful is his sceptical solution to the problem? David Hume was born in 1711 and studied at Edinburgh University, his influences were great natural scientists like Isaac Newton and Rene Descartes. Hume first wrote â€Å" a treatise of Human nature â€Å" which as Hume put it â€Å"fell stillborn from the press† it was â€Å"An enquiry concerning human understanding† (from here this will be referred to as â€Å"the enquiry†) in which Hume put forward, in the form we are concerned with, the problem of induction and his own response to that problem. Although as we shall see his own response may be far from adequate. This essay is concerned with explaining Hume’s problem of induction as put forward in the enquiry, and explaining his sceptical solution to this problem. The essay is also concerned with assessing how successful his solution is. Arguably Hume’s most famous contribution to philosophy was the problem of induction. The problem of induction arises from Hume’s belief that propositions fall into one of two categories, relations of ideas and matters of fact. It is in the latter of these two categories, matters of fact that the problem of induction occurs. It was Hume’s view that matters of fact are statements about the world, justification for their validity comes from experience. This is fine for the present or past but it is the future that throws up the problem of induction. How can we justify expectations of the future? Or to put it another way how can we justify the belief that we know what will occur in unobserved events. If we use the same method as for the present and the past i.e. experience then we are assuming that nature will stay the same. But as Hume points out it is conceivable that nature will change in some way, therefore in Hume’s philosophy it is possible that nature will change, therefore you cannot justify beliefs about the future using past experien... Free Essays on What Is Hume's Problem Of Induction Free Essays on What Is Hume's Problem Of Induction What is Hume’s problem of induction? How successful is his sceptical solution to the problem? David Hume was born in 1711 and studied at Edinburgh University, his influences were great natural scientists like Isaac Newton and Rene Descartes. Hume first wrote â€Å" a treatise of Human nature â€Å" which as Hume put it â€Å"fell stillborn from the press† it was â€Å"An enquiry concerning human understanding† (from here this will be referred to as â€Å"the enquiry†) in which Hume put forward, in the form we are concerned with, the problem of induction and his own response to that problem. Although as we shall see his own response may be far from adequate. This essay is concerned with explaining Hume’s problem of induction as put forward in the enquiry, and explaining his sceptical solution to this problem. The essay is also concerned with assessing how successful his solution is. Arguably Hume’s most famous contribution to philosophy was the problem of induction. The problem of induction arises from Hume’s belief that propositions fall into one of two categories, relations of ideas and matters of fact. It is in the latter of these two categories, matters of fact that the problem of induction occurs. It was Hume’s view that matters of fact are statements about the world, justification for their validity comes from experience. This is fine for the present or past but it is the future that throws up the problem of induction. How can we justify expectations of the future? Or to put it another way how can we justify the belief that we know what will occur in unobserved events. If we use the same method as for the present and the past i.e. experience then we are assuming that nature will stay the same. But as Hume points out it is conceivable that nature will change in some way, therefore in Hume’s philosophy it is possible that nature will change, therefore you cannot justify beliefs about the future using past experien...

Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Argument - Essay Example For example, CI requires that a rational individual is moral if the end of their actions is to promote the good of all. Therefore, CI is the best theory in precisely articulating human reasoning and decision making, and relating these to free human will compared to other decision theories. Moral actions are indicative of rationality, with an immoral action indicating irrationality in an individual. A moral action has to be universal in that it has to stand true in any event anywhere. For example, stealing is immoral; it causes pain to the owner while it may result to pleasure in the one stealing. Causing pain is immoral as it leads to suffering, implying that such an act when committed by a rational being would be immoral. Stealing is thus a crime universally as it violates CI theory, which is a universal law of morals. Being a universal law, Kantian CI becomes the best theory that explains why individuals have to decide in a certain way. For example, considering the relational Diale cts theory in a similar case, the theory requires us to consider issues around us, which help people to construct meaning in any relation. Thus the theory is based on specific circumstances as it requires one to consider cultural and social rational systems. This implies the theory applies to multicultural diversity (Turner, 2004). Thus stealing according to this theory may be justified in some cases as it directs people to construct certain meanings in a specific setting of relationships. On the other hand, the how we decide theory is largely based on observable behavior from outside as one cannot access the mind of the individual. For example, asking why does a an individual steal would lead to detailed examinations of their behaviors and history in finding elements that may explain such behaviors in deciding if the individual is actually on the wrong. Such an observation may sometimes be inaccurate and may lead to a wrong conclusion. Therefore, the advantage of CI theory is that it is based on a universal law and is not relative as the other two theories, which depend on specific circumstances. The issue of personal freedom in making a decision is of much importance, and precisely bestows the responsibility of an action on the particular individual. As Kant’s CI theory explains, freedom is an important element in reasoning, whose function cannot be ignored. Thus, without assuming freedom, an individual cannot act (McCormick, 2005). In other words, an individual is not a robot or causal agent that only serves to implement orders. Thinking in such direction would deny humanity its own existence and purpose. Freedom is thus a central focus in decision making and reasoning; an individual is at will to decide in any direction. In this theory, Kant places the consequence of each action on the specific individual, and not on a system of events that may be explained to be the causal agents behind such an action. However, considering the how we decide theory, the major limitation is the assumption that humans are not rational. Thus, the theory traces human action not from the specific individual, but from a system of factors and history that plays to shape and define human actions. This would relegate humanity to being a causal agent that is not responsible for

Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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